Femur Anatomy: Complete Guide with Parts, Names, Functions & Diagram

📅 Published on June 9, 2024 | 🕒 Last updated on February 19, 2026

Overview of Femur Anatomy

The femur, or thigh bone, is the main bone in your thigh.[1] It connects your hip to your knee and is your body’s largest and strongest bone.[1][2] In animals with four legs, it is the upper bone in the back leg. The femur anatomy has several parts: the shaft, head, neck, and more.[1] The top part fits into your hip joint, and the bottom connects to your shinbone (tibia) and kneecap (patella) to form your knee.[1] Humans have two femurs, one in each leg, and they meet at the knees, connecting to the tibiae. The angle where they meet affects the angle of your knees.[1] The femur is about 26.74% of a person’s height, so it can help estimate the height of someone from their skeleton.[1][3]

This article will show the detailed femur bone anatomy with its parts, names, functions & diagrams. It will help us to understand more about the human body parts.

Femur Anatomy Diagram

Parts of Femur

Femur Anatomy

Femoral Head

The femoral head is the rounded top part of the thigh bone (femur).[1] It connects to the femoral neck and fits into the acetabulum of the pelvis, forming the hip joint.[1][2]

The femoral head is shaped like a ball.[1] It has a small pit called the fovea capitis femoris, where a ligament attaches.[2] This area is important because it can suffer from avascular necrosis, especially after hip injuries.[2]

The femoral head acts as the “ball” in the hip joint, allowing a wide range of motion. It is covered with smooth cartilage, which helps it move easily against the acetabulum.[1]

Inside the femoral head, there are different patterns of trabeculae (small, beam-like structures within the bone):

1. Primary Compressive Group: These trabeculae run vertically from the top of the femoral head to the inner neck, bearing the main load.[2][4]
2. Primary Tensile Group: These run from the bottom of the femoral head to the outer side of the femur, handling tensile (stretching) forces.[2][4]
3. Secondary Compressive Group: These follow additional stress lines within the upper femur.[2][4]
4. Secondary Tensile Group: These align with tensile forces in the outer upper femur.[2][4]
5. Greater Trochanteric Group: These follow stress lines within the greater trochanter, a bony prominence on the femur.[2][4]

There is an area with fewer trabeculae called Ward’s triangle, which is a weak spot in the bone. It differs from Babcock’s triangle, a region seen on X-rays where hip tuberculosis often occurs.[2]

Femoral Neck

The femoral neck is a connecting bone structure between the femoral head and shaft. It is shaped like a flattened pyramid, with a wider angle outward.[1]

The neck is flat from front to back, narrower in the middle, and wider on the outer side compared to the inner side.[1]

The lateral half of the neck has a larger vertical diameter due to its sloping lower edge. It joins the body near the lesser trochanter. This side measures about one-third more than its front-to-back diameter. The medial half is smaller and more circular.[1]

The front of the neck has many small holes for blood vessels. There are slight grooves along the top front where the hip joint capsule fibers sit.[1]

The back of the neck is smooth, broader, and more concave than the front. The hip joint capsule attaches about 1 cm above the intertrochanteric crest.[1]

The top border is short and thick. It ends at the greater trochanter and has large holes for vessels. The bottom border is longer and narrower. It curves slightly backward to reach the lesser trochanter.[1]

Femur Shaft

The femur, or your thigh bone, angles slightly inward and brings your knees closer to your body center to maintain balance.[1]

On the backside of the femur, there are rough ridges called the rough line or linea aspera. These ridges split below into two lines, medial and lateral supracondylar lines, with a flat area(the popliteal surface) in between.[1]

Near the top, the rough line becomes the pectineal line on the inside and the rough gluteal tuberosity outside, where your gluteus maximus muscle attaches.[1]

Towards the bottom, the linea aspera widens and becomes part of the popliteal fossa. The medial and lateral borders become the medial and lateral supracondylar lines.[1]

The medial supracondylar line ends at the adductor tubercle, where the adductor magnus muscle attaches.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Femoral Head, Neck, and Shaft

Start the Quiz on the Femoral Head, Neck, and Shaft.

1 / 10

1. The capsule of the hip joint covers the femoral neck to which level anteriorly?

1. Does not cover the neck at all

2. Only the femoral head

3. Half of the femoral neck only

4. The entire femoral neck anteriorly to the intertrochanteric line

2 / 10

2. Fat embolism syndrome following femoral shaft fracture is caused by:

1. Fat droplets from yellow bone marrow entering the bloodstream

2. Sciatic nerve damage

3. Excessive blood loss

4. Excessive traction weight

3 / 10

3. Which artery is the PRIMARY blood supply to the femoral head in adults?

1. Medial femoral circumflex artery

2. Artery of the ligamentum teres

3. Lateral femoral circumflex artery

4. Profunda femoris artery

4 / 10

4. The calcar femorale is a dense cortical structure located at:

1. The posteromedial base of the femoral neck, below the lesser trochanter

2. The tip of the greater trochanter

3. The superolateral femoral neck

4. The anterior intertrochanteric line

5 / 10

5. The standard treatment for a displaced femoral shaft fracture in a healthy adult is:

1. Casting in traction

2. Open reduction and plate fixation only

3. Intramedullary (IM) nail fixation

4. External fixation as definitive treatment

6 / 10

6. An intertrochanteric fracture differs from a femoral neck fracture in that it is:

1. Always intracapsular

2. Entirely extracapsular

3. More likely to cause avascular necrosis

4. Less common in the elderly

7 / 10

7. A stress fracture of the femoral neck on the compression (inferior) side is managed differently than a tension-side fracture because:

1. It involves a higher risk of AVN

2. It rarely requires surgery and can be treated with protected weight bearing

3. It is more painful

4. It always requires total hip replacement

8 / 10

8. In a transverse femoral shaft fracture, which X-ray view is essential to fully assess angulation and displacement?

1. AP (anteroposterior) view only

2. Lateral view only

3. Oblique view only

4. Both AP and lateral views

9 / 10

9. The secondary ossification center for the femoral head typically appears radiographically at approximately:

1. Puberty (12–14 years)

2. 3–6 months of age

3. 4–5 years

4. Birth

10 / 10

10. Coxa vara is a deformity where the femoral neck-shaft angle is:

1. Greater than 135°

2. Equal to 120°

3. Exactly 90°

4. Less than 120°

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Greater Trochanter

The greater trochanter of the femur is a major, bony projection on the side of the thigh bone. It extends outward and slightly backward from the hip joint.[1]

In adults, it typically sits 2–4 cm below the top of the femur. However, in females, due to a wider pelvic outlet than males, there is a greater in-between distance of the greater trochanters.[1]

On its outer side, the greater trochanter is broad and rough. It is shaped like a quadrilateral. It has a diagonal groove where the tendon of the gluteus medius muscle attaches.[1]

This attachment occurs with areas above and below this groove that may be roughened or smooth with a cushioning bursa.[1]

On the inner side, there is a smaller, deep vale known as the trochanteric fossa, where the tendon of the obturator externus muscle attaches.[1]

Lesser Trochanter

In human anatomy, the lesser trochanter is a small, cone-shaped bump inside the femur (thigh bone). It is located where the shaft of the femur meets the neck of the femur, towards the back and slightly below.[1]

The main function of the lesser trochanter is to serve as the attachment point for the iliopsoas muscle, which is important for hip movement.[1]

The top and front surfaces of the lesser trochanter are rough, while the back surface is smooth.[1] From its highest point, three distinct borders extend:

1. A medial border that continues with the lower edge of the femoral neck.[1]
2. A lateral border that merges with the intertrochanteric crest.[1]
3. An inferior border that blends with the middle section of the linea aspera, a ridge on the femur.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Greater & Lesser Trochanter

Start the Quiz on the Greater & Lesser Trochanter.

1 / 10

1. What is the clinical significance of the 'quadratus femoris angle' or femoral offset in hip replacement surgery?

1. Restoring proper offset ensures correct abductor tension, reduces dislocation risk, and minimizes Trendelenburg gait post-operatively

2. It determines the length of the femoral stem

3. It affects knee joint alignment only

4. It determines the type of anesthesia needed

2 / 10

2. Greater trochanteric pain syndrome (GTPS) most commonly affects:

1. Middle-aged to older women

2. Young male athletes

3. Neonates

4. Children under 10 years

3 / 10

3. On a lateral X-ray of the hip, the lesser trochanter is most clearly visualized when the limb is in:

1. Maximum flexion

2. Maximum external rotation

3. Neutral position

4. Maximum internal rotation

4 / 10

4. Which of the following muscles does NOT attach to the greater trochanter?

1. Iliopsoas

2. Piriformis

3. Gluteus minimus

4. Gluteus medius

5 / 10

5. Which of the following is NOT a short external rotator of the hip that attaches near the greater trochanter?

1. Pectineus

2. Piriformis

3. Obturator internus

4. Quadratus femoris

6 / 10

6. The gluteus medius muscle inserts on which facet of the greater trochanter?

1. Anterior facet

2. Posterior facet

3. Trochanteric fossa (medial)

4. Superolateral facet (lateral surface)

7 / 10

7. In coxa valga (increased neck-shaft angle >135°), the greater trochanter is positioned:

1. More laterally and superiorly relative to the joint center

2. More medially and inferiorly

3. Is absent

4. At the normal level

8 / 10

8. The trochanteric fossa is a deep depression on which surface of the greater trochanter?

1. Posterior

2. Medial (inner)

3. Superior

4. Anterior

9 / 10

9. The obturator externus muscle, one of the six short hip external rotators, inserts in:

1. The intertrochanteric line anteriorly

2. The trochanteric fossa of the greater trochanter

3. The lesser trochanter

4. The calcar femorale

10 / 10

10. The primary muscle that inserts on the lesser trochanter is:

1. Gluteus maximus

2. Rectus femoris

3. Tensor fascia lata

4. Iliopsoas (iliacus + psoas major)

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Medial & Lateral Condyle

The lower end of the femur has two projections: the medial and lateral condyles. The medial condyle is bigger because it bears more weight since the body’s center leans toward the inner side of the knee.[1]

On the back of the medial condyle, a ridge splits into two parts: the medial and lateral supracondylar ridges.[1]

The most distant ridge on the inner side of the medial condyle is called the “medial epicondyle,” which you can feel by running your fingers from the patella inward when the knee is bent. The extra part of the medial femoral condyle helps the knee rotate passively.[1]

The lateral condyle is the other ridge on the femur’s lower end. It is more prominent and wider from front to back and side to side compared to the medial condyle.[1]

Intercondylar Fossa/ Notch

The intercondylar fossa of the femur is like a deep groove between two bumps at the bottom of your thigh bone. These bumps are called the medial and lateral epicondyles.[1]

They are the parts that connect to your knee. The bumps are smoother and not pronounced on the front side of your thigh bone. There is a flat area called the patellar surface where your kneecap fits.[1]

You might also hear these areas called the patellar groove, patellar sulcus, or trochlear groove of the femur. They are all different ways of talking about the same parts of your knee joint.[1]

Epicondyle

The medial epicondyle of the femur is a bony protrusion on the inner side of the thigh bone’s lower end. It is above the medial condyle and has a bump called the adductor tubercle.[1]

It is the portion where muscles attach. This bump separates the thigh muscles into groups. Behind it, there is a rough area where a calf muscle attaches. The lateral epicondyle is smaller and less noticeable.[1]

It connects to a ligament in the knee. Below it is a groove that curves upward and backward on the back end of the bone.[1]

Patellar Surface & Groove

The patellar surface of the femur is a groove-like area at the lower front part of the thigh bone. This groove is between the inner and outer parts of the lower femur.[1]

It connects with a ridge on the patella (kneecap), forming the patellofemoral joint. This joint allows the kneecap to smoothly slide over the end of the thigh bone when we bend or straighten our knee.[1]

Linea Aspera

The linea aspera is a prominent bony ridge located on the posterior side of the femur or thigh bone. This structure is an attachment site for various muscles and connective tissues, effectively dividing the thigh into three distinct compartments.[1]

The linea aspera features two primary edges, the medial and lateral lips, with a roughened area in between.
It provides critical attachment points for the adductor muscles that move the leg toward the body’s midline.[1]

The intermuscular septa are connective tissues that separate different groups of thigh muscles. The distinctive ridges of the linea aspera are formed by the mechanical pull of the attached muscles, gradually shaping the bone over time.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Medial & Lateral Condyles, Intercondylar Notch, Epicondyles, Patellar Groove, Linea Aspera

Start the Quiz on the Medial & Lateral Condyles, Intercondylar Notch, Epicondyles, Patellar Groove, Linea Aspera.

1 / 10

1. The intercondylar notch (intercondylar fossa) of the femur is the site of attachment for which critical knee ligaments?

1. Patellar tendon and quadriceps tendon

2. Medial and lateral collateral ligaments

3. Iliotibial band and popliteus tendon

4. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL)

2 / 10

2. The medial collateral ligament (MCL) has two distinct layers. The superficial MCL primarily attaches from the medial femoral epicondyle to:

1. The medial tibial plateau directly

2. The tibial tuberosity

3. The medial tibial shaft, approximately 6 cm below the joint line, beneath the pes anserinus

4. The medial meniscus only

3 / 10

3. The lateral femoral condyle is more prominent anteriorly than the medial condyle. This lateral prominence helps to:

1. Prevent lateral patellar dislocation by providing a lateral 'wall'

2. Facilitate the screw-home mechanism

3. Attach the lateral meniscus more securely

4. Prevent medial patellar dislocation

4 / 10

4. The medial femoral epicondyle is palpable on physical examination as the most prominent medial bony landmark of the:

1. Mid-femoral shaft

2. Proximal femur

3. Distal medial femur, just proximal to the joint line

4. Femoral neck

5 / 10

5. Medial femoral condyle hypoplasia (underdevelopment) is associated with which condition?

1. Tibial plateau fracture

2. Knee valgus deformity and lateral compartment overload

3. Lateral meniscal cyst

4. ACL tear

6 / 10

6. The Blumensaat line on a lateral knee X-ray represents:

1. The posterior cortex of the distal femur

2. The roof of the intercondylar notch, used to assess patellar height

3. The patellar tendon insertion line

4. The linea aspera

7 / 10

7. The posterior femoral condyle offset (PCO) is measured on a lateral knee X-ray and is important in TKA because:

1. Restoring PCO ensures adequate knee flexion space and prevents tight flexion gap or 'flexion instability'

2. It affects the Q-angle measurement

3. It determines the size of the tibial component

4. It determines the depth of the tibial component cut

8 / 10

8. The lateral femoral condyle is important in posterolateral corner (PLC) reconstruction because:

1. The PCL attaches laterally

2. The IT band attaches directly to the lateral condyle

3. The popliteus tendon and lateral collateral ligament originate from the lateral epicondyle/condyle region

4. The lateral meniscus is fused to the lateral condyle

9 / 10

9. The medial femoral epicondyle serves as the attachment for:

1. The biceps femoris tendon

2. The lateral collateral ligament

3. The iliotibial band (IT band)

4. The medial collateral ligament (MCL) and the medial gastrocnemius head origin

10 / 10

10. ACL reconstruction grafts are placed through bone tunnels. The femoral tunnel is drilled through the:

1. Posterior aspect of the lateral condyle

2. Lateral wall of the intercondylar notch (at the anatomic ACL footprint)

3. Intercondylar notch roof

4. Medial femoral condyle

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Medial Supracondylar Ridge

The medial supracondylar line is a ridge on the back of the femur. It runs down from the inner part of the thigh bone. It is not as clear as its counterpart on the outside of the bone.[1]

This line starts at the top of the back of the femur and goes down to the adductor tubercle. It divides the back of the thigh bone into the popliteal area and the inner part.[1]

For muscles, this line is where the vastus medialis muscle starts from and where the adductor magnus muscle attaches to.[1]

Lateral Supracondylar Ridge

The lateral supracondylar line is a ridge on the back of the femur. It is part of the bone that runs along the outer edge of the thigh bone.[1]

This line is a mark where certain leg muscles start. These muscles are the plantaris muscle and part of the biceps femoris muscle. It helps separate different areas of the femur bone and plays a role in muscle attachment.[1]

Medial Femoral Intermuscular Septum

The medial femoral intermuscular septum is a thick sheet of tissue that divides the muscles in your thigh. It sits between the thigh’s front and inner (adductor) parts. It stretches from the outer fascia to a ridge on your thigh bone called the linea aspera.[1]

Lateral Femoral Intermuscular Septum

The lateral femoral intermuscular septum is a tough layer of deep fascia that runs between the thigh muscles. It divides the front and back compartments of the thigh.[1]

The lateral femoral intermuscular septum starts from the outer fascia (fascia lata). It attaches along the linea aspera of the femur shaft. It stretches to the hip crest above and the outer knee bone below.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Medial and Lateral Supracondylar Ridge, Medial and Lateral Femoral Intermuscular Septum

Start the Quiz on the Medial and Lateral Supracondylar Ridge, Medial and Lateral Femoral Intermuscular Septum.

1 / 10

1. The term 'supracondylar' in the context of femur fractures most accurately refers to fractures occurring in the:

1. Metaphyseal zone between the condyles and the femoral shaft, 7–9 cm above the joint line

2. Purely within the condyles

3. Femoral shaft only

4. Above the femoral neck

2 / 10

2. The lateral approach to the femoral shaft (between vastus lateralis and the lateral intermuscular septum) requires careful retraction of which nerve that runs in the posterior compartment?

1. Femoral nerve

2. Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve

3. Sciatic nerve (posterior compartment)

4. Obturator nerve

3 / 10

3. The deep femoral artery (profunda femoris) gives off how many perforating arteries that pass through the adductor magnus and lateral intermuscular septum?

1. One

2. Two

3. Three (1st, 2nd, and 3rd perforating arteries)

4. Five

4 / 10

4. The vastoadductor (VA) membrane is a fascial structure in the medial thigh that forms the roof of the adductor canal. It is continuous with which structures?

1. Sartorius fascia and gluteal fascia

2. Fascia lata laterally and medial intermuscular septum

3. Iliotibial band and posterior compartment fascia

4. Quadriceps tendon and patellar retinaculum

5 / 10

5. The intermuscular septa create compartmental barriers in the thigh. In thigh hematoma post-femoral shaft fracture, initial blood accumulation occurs predominantly in the:

1. Subcutaneous tissue

2. The adductor canal exclusively

3. Fascial compartments bounded by the septa — most commonly the anterior compartment with the fracture

4. The retroperitoneal space

6 / 10

6. The nerve to vastus medialis runs in the adductor canal (adjacent to the medial intermuscular septum area). Damage to this nerve during medial knee surgery causes:

1. Quadriceps extension weakness and VMO atrophy, contributing to lateral patellar malalignment

2. Loss of knee flexion

3. Loss of hip adduction

4. Complete foot drop

7 / 10

7. In a lateral approach to the distal femur, the iliotibial band is split longitudinally. This approach provides access to the:

1. Medial condyle exclusively

2. Only the patellar groove

3. Lateral condyle, lateral supracondylar ridge, and lateral femoral shaft

4. Posterior intercondylar area

8 / 10

8. The short head of biceps femoris attaches to the lateral lip of the linea aspera and lateral supracondylar ridge. Its nerve supply is:

1. Femoral nerve

2. Tibial nerve (sciatic division)

3. Obturator nerve

4. Common peroneal nerve (sciatic division)

9 / 10

9. In periprosthetic distal femoral fractures around a total knee arthroplasty, the Vancouver/Lewis & Rorabeck classification describes fractures above the femoral component. Type II fractures are:

1. Displaced fractures with a stable implant — treated with ORIF (open reduction and internal fixation)

2. Non-displaced fractures with stable implants

3. Fractures with an unstable implant requiring revision arthroplasty

4. Stress fractures only

10 / 10

10. The lateral intermuscular septum is perforated by which important neurovascular structures?

1. Obturator nerve and vessels

2. Perforating arteries (from profunda femoris) and the nerve to the short head of biceps femoris

3. Femoral artery and saphenous nerve

4. Popliteal artery

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Gluteal Tuberosity

The gluteal tuberosity is a part of the femur bone where the gluteus maximus muscle attaches. It is one of three bony ridges that extend upwards from the back of the femur and start from the linea aspera.[1]

This tuberosity can either appear as a long dent or a rough bump. It runs vertically from the linea aspera up to the base of the greater trochanter, another bony part of the femur.[1]

Adductor Tubercle

The adductor tubercle is a typical bony prominence found at the top of the inner bulge of the thigh bone’s knobby part.[1]

It marks the end of the upper line on the inner side of the thigh bone. It is the portion where the lowest part of the adductor magnus muscle attaches.[1]

The adductor tubercle is located in front and below the prominent point on the inner bulge of the thigh bone, known as the medial epicondyle. This area is where the ligament that connects the thigh bone to the shin bone is anchored.[1]

Femoral Shaft Angles

In the femur anatomy, the angle between the femoral neck and shaft (neck-shaft angle, NSA) varies among people and ancient humans. In adults today, it typically ranges from 120 to 140 degrees. Some have angles less than 120 degrees (coxa varus), while others exceed 140 degrees (coxa valgus).[1]

Nutrient Foramen

The nutrient foramen on the femur shaft is the primary entry point for the nutrient artery into the marrow cavity. Knowledge of its precise location is crucial in surgery and fracture assessment to ensure fractures do not intersect these vital openings.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Gluteal Tuberosity, Adductor Tubercle, Femoral Shaft Angles, Nutrient Foramen, Medullary Cavity

Start the Quiz on the Gluteal Tuberosity, Adductor Tubercle, Femoral Shaft Angles, Nutrient Foramen, Medullary Cavity.

1 / 10

1. The normal femoral medullary canal shows on CT scan a Hounsfield unit (HU) density of approximately:

1. +400–600 HU (same as cortical bone)

2. 300–400 HU (soft tissue density)

3. 0 HU (water density)

4. −100 to −200 HU (fat density, reflecting yellow marrow)

2 / 10

2. The gluteal tuberosity is sometimes enlarged into a bony ridge called the 'third trochanter.' It is present in approximately what percentage of individuals?

1. 50–60%

2. 5–10%

3. 25–30%

4. <1%

3 / 10

3. The angle of femoral torsion (anteversion) is measured between the long axis of the femoral neck and which reference axis?

1. The acetabular axis

2. The tibial long axis

3. The transcondylar axis (axis through both femoral condyles)

4. The long axis of the femoral shaft

4 / 10

4. Cortical bone blood supply flows predominantly in which direction in the femoral shaft?

1. From periosteum inward (centripetal) in all zones equally

2. Only from the nutrient artery

3. From endosteum/medullary cavity outward (centrifugal) under normal conditions, supplemented by periosteal supply in the outer one-third

4. Solely from the periosteum in adults

5 / 10

5. Gaucher's disease is a lysosomal storage disorder that commonly affects the femoral medullary cavity by causing:

1. Infiltration and expansion of the marrow with glucocerebrosidase-laden macrophages, causing bone pain, AVN, and 'Erlenmeyer flask' deformity

2. Increased yellow marrow

3. Benign cyst formation only

4. Sclerosis of the medullary cavity exclusively

6 / 10

6. The nutrient foramen of the femur transmits the nutrient artery. This artery is typically a branch of which vessel?

1. Femoral artery directly

2. Obturator artery

3. Medial circumflex femoral artery

4. Profunda femoris (deep femoral artery) — via perforating branches

7 / 10

7. The femoral shaft is more susceptible to stress fractures in which location?

1. Metaphyseal zone near the condyles

2. At the site of the nutrient foramen on the posterior shaft

3. The lateral femoral cortex of the distal third in athletes (especially runners and soldiers)

4. The femoral neck exclusively

8 / 10

8. The cortical thickness of the femoral shaft is greatest at the:

1. Mid-diaphysis (isthmus — the narrowest internal diameter but thickest cortex)

2. Femoral neck region

3. Proximal metaphysis

4. Distal metaphysis

9 / 10

9. The 'mechanical axis deviation' (MAD) is the horizontal distance between the mechanical axis and the knee center. In a varus knee, the mechanical axis passes:

1. Medial to the knee center — through the medial compartment, overloading medial cartilage

2. Through the lateral compartment

3. Through the exact center

4. Above the intercondylar notch

10 / 10

10. The nutrient foramen can be absent in approximately what percentage of femora?

1. It is absent in all elderly individuals

2. 50%

3. 10–15% have no distinct single nutrient foramen — multiple small foramina may be present instead

4. 0% — always present

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FAQ’s-

References-

1. National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2023). Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Femur. StatPearls Publishing.
   PMID: 30422577. Last reviewed: November 17, 2023.
   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532982/
2. National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2023). Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Fovea Capitis Femoris. StatPearls Publishing.
   PMID: 30335248. Last reviewed: August 8, 2023.
   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519005/
3. Trotter, M., & Gleser, G. C. (1992). Femur/stature ratio and estimates of stature in children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology.
   PMID: 1580352.
   https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1580352/
4. Li, X., et al. (2025). Functional morphology of trabecular system in human proximal femur: A perspective from P45 sectional plastination and 3D reconstruction finite element analysis. Bone Research.
   PMCID: PMC11993998. Published: April 12, 2025.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11993998/
5. Zhang, Q., et al. (2022). The biomechanical behavior of 3D printed human femoral bones under compressive loads. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 40(12), 2845–2856.
   PMCID: PMC9685985 — PMID: 36373714.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9685985/
6. O’Brien, F. J. (2018). Bone mechanical properties in healthy and diseased states. National Library of Medicine (PMC).
   PMCID: PMC6053074.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6053074/

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