Femur Anatomy: Complete Guide with Parts, Names, Functions & Diagram

📅 Published on June 9, 2024 | 🕒 Last updated on February 19, 2026

Overview of Femur Anatomy

The femur, or thigh bone, is the main bone in your thigh.[1] It connects your hip to your knee and is your body’s largest and strongest bone.[1][2] In animals with four legs, it is the upper bone in the back leg. The femur anatomy has several parts: the shaft, head, neck, and more.[1] The top part fits into your hip joint, and the bottom connects to your shinbone (tibia) and kneecap (patella) to form your knee.[1] Humans have two femurs, one in each leg, and they meet at the knees, connecting to the tibiae. The angle where they meet affects the angle of your knees.[1] The femur is about 26.74% of a person’s height, so it can help estimate the height of someone from their skeleton.[1][3]

This article will show the detailed femur bone anatomy with its parts, names, functions & diagrams. It will help us to understand more about the human body parts.

Femur Anatomy Diagram

Parts of Femur

Femur Anatomy

Femoral Head

The femoral head is the rounded top part of the thigh bone (femur).[1] It connects to the femoral neck and fits into the acetabulum of the pelvis, forming the hip joint.[1][2]

The femoral head is shaped like a ball.[1] It has a small pit called the fovea capitis femoris, where a ligament attaches.[2] This area is important because it can suffer from avascular necrosis, especially after hip injuries.[2]

The femoral head acts as the “ball” in the hip joint, allowing a wide range of motion. It is covered with smooth cartilage, which helps it move easily against the acetabulum.[1]

Inside the femoral head, there are different patterns of trabeculae (small, beam-like structures within the bone):

1. Primary Compressive Group: These trabeculae run vertically from the top of the femoral head to the inner neck, bearing the main load.[2][4]
2. Primary Tensile Group: These run from the bottom of the femoral head to the outer side of the femur, handling tensile (stretching) forces.[2][4]
3. Secondary Compressive Group: These follow additional stress lines within the upper femur.[2][4]
4. Secondary Tensile Group: These align with tensile forces in the outer upper femur.[2][4]
5. Greater Trochanteric Group: These follow stress lines within the greater trochanter, a bony prominence on the femur.[2][4]

There is an area with fewer trabeculae called Ward’s triangle, which is a weak spot in the bone. It differs from Babcock’s triangle, a region seen on X-rays where hip tuberculosis often occurs.[2]

Femoral Neck

The femoral neck is a connecting bone structure between the femoral head and shaft. It is shaped like a flattened pyramid, with a wider angle outward.[1]

The neck is flat from front to back, narrower in the middle, and wider on the outer side compared to the inner side.[1]

The lateral half of the neck has a larger vertical diameter due to its sloping lower edge. It joins the body near the lesser trochanter. This side measures about one-third more than its front-to-back diameter. The medial half is smaller and more circular.[1]

The front of the neck has many small holes for blood vessels. There are slight grooves along the top front where the hip joint capsule fibers sit.[1]

The back of the neck is smooth, broader, and more concave than the front. The hip joint capsule attaches about 1 cm above the intertrochanteric crest.[1]

The top border is short and thick. It ends at the greater trochanter and has large holes for vessels. The bottom border is longer and narrower. It curves slightly backward to reach the lesser trochanter.[1]

Femur Shaft

The femur, or your thigh bone, angles slightly inward and brings your knees closer to your body center to maintain balance.[1]

On the backside of the femur, there are rough ridges called the rough line or linea aspera. These ridges split below into two lines, medial and lateral supracondylar lines, with a flat area(the popliteal surface) in between.[1]

Near the top, the rough line becomes the pectineal line on the inside and the rough gluteal tuberosity outside, where your gluteus maximus muscle attaches.[1]

Towards the bottom, the linea aspera widens and becomes part of the popliteal fossa. The medial and lateral borders become the medial and lateral supracondylar lines.[1]

The medial supracondylar line ends at the adductor tubercle, where the adductor magnus muscle attaches.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Femoral Head, Neck, and Shaft

Start the Quiz on the Femoral Head, Neck, and Shaft.

1 / 10

1. A 75-year-old woman falls and sustains a displaced intracapsular femoral neck fracture. The most feared complication is:

1. Sciatic nerve injury

2. Deep vein thrombosis

3. Avascular necrosis of the femoral head

4. Trochanteric bursitis

2 / 10

2. Which ligament attaches along the intertrochanteric line anteriorly and is the strongest ligament of the hip joint?

1. Iliofemoral ligament (Y-ligament of Bigelow)

2. Ligamentum teres

3. Pubofemoral ligament

4. Ischiofemoral ligament

3 / 10

3. The femoral shaft contains yellow bone marrow in adults. Yellow marrow is primarily composed of:

1. Adipose (fat) tissue

2. Red blood cell precursors

3. Dense cortical bone matrix

4. Hematopoietic stem cells

4 / 10

4. The proximal femoral physis (growth plate) in children is located at:

1. Between the trochanters

2. The base of the femoral neck

3. At the level of the femoral head (capital epiphysis)

4. The mid-shaft

5 / 10

5. In cross-section, the mid-femoral shaft is best described as:

1. Rectangular

2. Flat and plate-like

3. Triangular

4. Cylindrical with a central medullary cavity

6 / 10

6. Fat embolism syndrome following femoral shaft fracture is caused by:

1. Fat droplets from yellow bone marrow entering the bloodstream

2. Excessive traction weight

3. Excessive blood loss

4. Sciatic nerve damage

7 / 10

7. Which muscle group is responsible for the typical deformity seen in a mid-shaft femoral fracture — proximal fragment flexed, abducted, and externally rotated?

1. Gastrocnemius and soleus

2. Quadriceps and hamstrings

3. Adductors and gracilis

4. Iliopsoas (hip flexion), gluteus medius (abduction), short external rotators

8 / 10

8. The profunda femoris (deep femoral artery) is the main blood supply to the femoral shaft. It arises from which vessel?

1. Femoral artery

2. External iliac artery

3. Obturator artery

4. Popliteal artery

9 / 10

9. Which anatomical feature distinguishes the femoral neck from the femoral shaft on an AP radiograph?

1. The femoral neck is narrower, angulated, and connects the femoral head to the trochanteric region

2. The neck and shaft cannot be distinguished

3. The femoral neck appears sclerotic and white

4. The femoral shaft contains the femoral head

10 / 10

10. The capsule of the hip joint covers the femoral neck to which level anteriorly?

1. Half of the femoral neck only

2. Only the femoral head

3. The entire femoral neck anteriorly to the intertrochanteric line

4. Does not cover the neck at all

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Greater Trochanter

The greater trochanter of the femur is a major, bony projection on the side of the thigh bone. It extends outward and slightly backward from the hip joint.[1]

In adults, it typically sits 2–4 cm below the top of the femur. However, in females, due to a wider pelvic outlet than males, there is a greater in-between distance of the greater trochanters.[1]

On its outer side, the greater trochanter is broad and rough. It is shaped like a quadrilateral. It has a diagonal groove where the tendon of the gluteus medius muscle attaches.[1]

This attachment occurs with areas above and below this groove that may be roughened or smooth with a cushioning bursa.[1]

On the inner side, there is a smaller, deep vale known as the trochanteric fossa, where the tendon of the obturator externus muscle attaches.[1]

Lesser Trochanter

In human anatomy, the lesser trochanter is a small, cone-shaped bump inside the femur (thigh bone). It is located where the shaft of the femur meets the neck of the femur, towards the back and slightly below.[1]

The main function of the lesser trochanter is to serve as the attachment point for the iliopsoas muscle, which is important for hip movement.[1]

The top and front surfaces of the lesser trochanter are rough, while the back surface is smooth.[1] From its highest point, three distinct borders extend:

1. A medial border that continues with the lower edge of the femoral neck.[1]
2. A lateral border that merges with the intertrochanteric crest.[1]
3. An inferior border that blends with the middle section of the linea aspera, a ridge on the femur.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Greater & Lesser Trochanter

Start the Quiz on the Greater & Lesser Trochanter.

1 / 10

1. Which of the following is the primary action of the piriformis, which attaches to the greater trochanter (superior facet)?

1. Internal rotation

2. External rotation and abduction of the extended hip

3. Hip adduction

4. Hip flexion

2 / 10

2. The trochanteric bursa lies between which structures?

1. The femoral head and the labrum

2. The hip joint capsule and the acetabulum

3. Iliopsoas tendon and the lesser trochanter

4. Gluteus medius tendon and the greater trochanter

3 / 10

3. What is the innervation of the gluteus medius, which inserts on the greater trochanter?

1. Inferior gluteal nerve (L5, S1, S2)

2. Femoral nerve (L2, L3, L4)

3. Obturator nerve (L2, L3, L4)

4. Superior gluteal nerve (L4, L5, S1)

4 / 10

4. In total hip arthroplasty (THA), the greater trochanter is relevant because:

1. It is the reference point for femoral component sizing and offset restoration, and abductor reattachment in certain approaches

2. It is replaced with a metal implant

3. It forms the new acetabulum

4. It is routinely excised

5 / 10

5. In coxa valga (increased neck-shaft angle >135°), the greater trochanter is positioned:

1. More medially and inferiorly

2. More laterally and superiorly relative to the joint center

3. At the normal level

4. Is absent

6 / 10

6. An isolated lesser trochanter avulsion fracture in an adult should raise clinical suspicion for:

1. Bisphosphonate-related fracture

2. Trochanteric bursitis

3. Pathological fracture due to bone metastasis or lytic lesion

4. Simple athletic injury

7 / 10

7. Gluteus medius tendinopathy and tears are sometimes called the 'rotator cuff of the hip' because:

1. They are always traumatic

2. They cause instability similar to a shoulder dislocation

3. They involve multiple tendons inserting near a bony prominence that can degenerate similarly to the shoulder rotator cuff

4. They require arthroscopic surgery exclusively

8 / 10

8. On a lateral X-ray of the hip, the lesser trochanter is most clearly visualized when the limb is in:

1. Maximum internal rotation

2. Maximum external rotation

3. Neutral position

4. Maximum flexion

9 / 10

9. The gluteus medius muscle inserts on which facet of the greater trochanter?

1. Superolateral facet (lateral surface)

2. Posterior facet

3. Trochanteric fossa (medial)

4. Anterior facet

10 / 10

10. The apophysis of the greater trochanter is a separate ossification center that typically fuses with the femur by age:

1. 6–8 years

2. 25–30 years

3. 16–18 years

4. 2–4 years

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Medial & Lateral Condyle

The lower end of the femur has two projections: the medial and lateral condyles. The medial condyle is bigger because it bears more weight since the body’s center leans toward the inner side of the knee.[1]

On the back of the medial condyle, a ridge splits into two parts: the medial and lateral supracondylar ridges.[1]

The most distant ridge on the inner side of the medial condyle is called the “medial epicondyle,” which you can feel by running your fingers from the patella inward when the knee is bent. The extra part of the medial femoral condyle helps the knee rotate passively.[1]

The lateral condyle is the other ridge on the femur’s lower end. It is more prominent and wider from front to back and side to side compared to the medial condyle.[1]

Intercondylar Fossa/ Notch

The intercondylar fossa of the femur is like a deep groove between two bumps at the bottom of your thigh bone. These bumps are called the medial and lateral epicondyles.[1]

They are the parts that connect to your knee. The bumps are smoother and not pronounced on the front side of your thigh bone. There is a flat area called the patellar surface where your kneecap fits.[1]

You might also hear these areas called the patellar groove, patellar sulcus, or trochlear groove of the femur. They are all different ways of talking about the same parts of your knee joint.[1]

Epicondyle

The medial epicondyle of the femur is a bony protrusion on the inner side of the thigh bone’s lower end. It is above the medial condyle and has a bump called the adductor tubercle.[1]

It is the portion where muscles attach. This bump separates the thigh muscles into groups. Behind it, there is a rough area where a calf muscle attaches. The lateral epicondyle is smaller and less noticeable.[1]

It connects to a ligament in the knee. Below it is a groove that curves upward and backward on the back end of the bone.[1]

Patellar Surface & Groove

The patellar surface of the femur is a groove-like area at the lower front part of the thigh bone. This groove is between the inner and outer parts of the lower femur.[1]

It connects with a ridge on the patella (kneecap), forming the patellofemoral joint. This joint allows the kneecap to smoothly slide over the end of the thigh bone when we bend or straighten our knee.[1]

Linea Aspera

The linea aspera is a prominent bony ridge located on the posterior side of the femur or thigh bone. This structure is an attachment site for various muscles and connective tissues, effectively dividing the thigh into three distinct compartments.[1]

The linea aspera features two primary edges, the medial and lateral lips, with a roughened area in between.
It provides critical attachment points for the adductor muscles that move the leg toward the body’s midline.[1]

The intermuscular septa are connective tissues that separate different groups of thigh muscles. The distinctive ridges of the linea aspera are formed by the mechanical pull of the attached muscles, gradually shaping the bone over time.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Medial & Lateral Condyles, Intercondylar Notch, Epicondyles, Patellar Groove, Linea Aspera

Start the Quiz on the Medial & Lateral Condyles, Intercondylar Notch, Epicondyles, Patellar Groove, Linea Aspera.

1 / 10

1. On an AP knee radiograph, the narrowing of the medial joint space suggests:

1. Medial compartment knee osteoarthritis with cartilage loss

2. ACL tear

3. Lateral meniscal tear

4. Medial femoral condyle osteochondral lesion

2 / 10

2. The medial and lateral condyles of the femur are located at the:

1. Junction of femoral neck and shaft

2. Proximal femur, forming the hip joint

3. Distal femur, forming the superior part of the knee joint

4. Mid-shaft of the femur

3 / 10

3. The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) is stronger than the ACL and attaches to which part of the intercondylar notch?

1. Anterior roof of the notch

2. Posterior aspect only of the intercondylar notch

3. Medial wall (posterior lateral surface of medial condyle) and posterior tibial plateau

4. Lateral wall (medial surface of lateral condyle)

4 / 10

4. The nutrient artery of the femoral shaft (arising from the profunda femoris) most commonly enters the posterior femur at the level of:

1. The lesser trochanter

2. Upper third of the femoral shaft (linea aspera region)

3. The femoral neck

4. Distal condyles

5 / 10

5. The medial collateral ligament (MCL) has two distinct layers. The superficial MCL primarily attaches from the medial femoral epicondyle to:

1. The tibial tuberosity

2. The medial tibial plateau directly

3. The medial tibial shaft, approximately 6 cm below the joint line, beneath the pes anserinus

4. The medial meniscus only

6 / 10

6. The intercondylar notch (intercondylar fossa) of the femur is the site of attachment for which critical knee ligaments?

1. Iliotibial band and popliteus tendon

2. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (ACL and PCL)

3. Medial and lateral collateral ligaments

4. Patellar tendon and quadriceps tendon

7 / 10

7. In unicompartmental knee arthroplasty (UKA), only which compartment is typically replaced in medial knee osteoarthritis?

1. Patellofemoral compartment

2. Medial tibiofemoral compartment (medial femoral condyle and medial tibial plateau)

3. All three compartments simultaneously

4. Lateral tibiofemoral compartment

8 / 10

8. Which adductor muscle has its primary insertion along the entire length of the linea aspera and a distal insertion at the adductor tubercle?

1. Adductor magnus

2. Adductor longus

3. Adductor brevis

4. Pectineus

9 / 10

9. In the knee joint, the femoral condyles rest on menisci that serve which function?

1. Load distribution, shock absorption, joint lubrication, stability, and proprioception for the knee joint

2. Replace articular cartilage function entirely

3. Purely as shock absorbers with no structural role

4. Only provide lateral stability

10 / 10

10. The adductor tubercle on the medial femoral condyle is the attachment site for which structure?

1. Medial collateral ligament

2. The hamstring portion of the adductor magnus muscle

3. Medial head of gastrocnemius

4. The gracilis muscle

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Medial Supracondylar Ridge

The medial supracondylar line is a ridge on the back of the femur. It runs down from the inner part of the thigh bone. It is not as clear as its counterpart on the outside of the bone.[1]

This line starts at the top of the back of the femur and goes down to the adductor tubercle. It divides the back of the thigh bone into the popliteal area and the inner part.[1]

For muscles, this line is where the vastus medialis muscle starts from and where the adductor magnus muscle attaches to.[1]

Lateral Supracondylar Ridge

The lateral supracondylar line is a ridge on the back of the femur. It is part of the bone that runs along the outer edge of the thigh bone.[1]

This line is a mark where certain leg muscles start. These muscles are the plantaris muscle and part of the biceps femoris muscle. It helps separate different areas of the femur bone and plays a role in muscle attachment.[1]

Medial Femoral Intermuscular Septum

The medial femoral intermuscular septum is a thick sheet of tissue that divides the muscles in your thigh. It sits between the thigh’s front and inner (adductor) parts. It stretches from the outer fascia to a ridge on your thigh bone called the linea aspera.[1]

Lateral Femoral Intermuscular Septum

The lateral femoral intermuscular septum is a tough layer of deep fascia that runs between the thigh muscles. It divides the front and back compartments of the thigh.[1]

The lateral femoral intermuscular septum starts from the outer fascia (fascia lata). It attaches along the linea aspera of the femur shaft. It stretches to the hip crest above and the outer knee bone below.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Medial and Lateral Supracondylar Ridge, Medial and Lateral Femoral Intermuscular Septum

Start the Quiz on the Medial and Lateral Supracondylar Ridge, Medial and Lateral Femoral Intermuscular Septum.

1 / 10

1. In tibial osteotomies for knee varus correction (high tibial osteotomy), the anatomy of the distal femoral supracondylar region is relevant because:

1. The supracondylar region contains the target for the tibial cut

2. The osteotomy is performed in the distal femur

3. Both are the same structure

4. Femoral supracondylar anatomy determines whether a distal femoral osteotomy (DFO) is needed for valgus correction instead of a proximal tibial osteotomy for varus correction

2 / 10

2. Compartment syndrome of the thigh following femoral fracture causes elevated pressure in which compartment most commonly?

1. Posterior (hamstring) compartment

2. Anterior (quadriceps) compartment

3. Medial (adductor) compartment

4. All three equally

3 / 10

3. The lateral intermuscular septum of the thigh separates which compartments?

1. Lateral from the joint capsule

2. Medial from posterior compartment

3. Anterior (extensor) from posterior (flexor) compartment on the lateral side

4. Anterior from adductor compartment

4 / 10

4. The medial supracondylar ridge is a continuation of which structure proximally on the posterior femur?

1. Medial lip of the linea aspera, extending distally to the medial epicondyle

2. Lateral lip of the linea aspera

3. The gluteal tuberosity

4. The greater trochanter

5 / 10

5. The deep femoral artery (profunda femoris) gives off how many perforating arteries that pass through the adductor magnus and lateral intermuscular septum?

1. Five

2. One

3. Three (1st, 2nd, and 3rd perforating arteries)

4. Two

6 / 10

6. The adductor canal (Hunter's canal) is bounded laterally by which muscle that is related to the medial intermuscular septum?

1. Sartorius

2. Gracilis

3. Adductor longus

4. Vastus medialis

7 / 10

7. On MRI of the thigh, the medial and lateral intermuscular septa appear as:

1. Dark (hypointense) fibrous bands on all sequences between muscle compartments

2. Identical to tendon tissue

3. Absent on MRI

4. Bright (hyperintense) lines on T2-weighted images

8 / 10

8. The lateral approach to the femoral shaft (between vastus lateralis and the lateral intermuscular septum) requires careful retraction of which nerve that runs in the posterior compartment?

1. Sciatic nerve (posterior compartment)

2. Femoral nerve

3. Lateral femoral cutaneous nerve

4. Obturator nerve

9 / 10

9. The 'screw-home mechanism' at the knee requires intact medial and lateral condylar articular surfaces. Condylar destruction by OA disrupts this mechanism, causing:

1. Failure of terminal knee extension locking — contributing to knee instability and pain on walking

2. Lateral patellar dislocation

3. Increased valgus of the knee exclusively

4. Increased knee rotation during gait

10 / 10

10. The vastoadductor (VA) membrane is a fascial structure in the medial thigh that forms the roof of the adductor canal. It is continuous with which structures?

1. Quadriceps tendon and patellar retinaculum

2. Sartorius fascia and gluteal fascia

3. Fascia lata laterally and medial intermuscular septum

4. Iliotibial band and posterior compartment fascia

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Gluteal Tuberosity

The gluteal tuberosity is a part of the femur bone where the gluteus maximus muscle attaches. It is one of three bony ridges that extend upwards from the back of the femur and start from the linea aspera.[1]

This tuberosity can either appear as a long dent or a rough bump. It runs vertically from the linea aspera up to the base of the greater trochanter, another bony part of the femur.[1]

Adductor Tubercle

The adductor tubercle is a typical bony prominence found at the top of the inner bulge of the thigh bone’s knobby part.[1]

It marks the end of the upper line on the inner side of the thigh bone. It is the portion where the lowest part of the adductor magnus muscle attaches.[1]

The adductor tubercle is located in front and below the prominent point on the inner bulge of the thigh bone, known as the medial epicondyle. This area is where the ligament that connects the thigh bone to the shin bone is anchored.[1]

Femoral Shaft Angles

In the femur anatomy, the angle between the femoral neck and shaft (neck-shaft angle, NSA) varies among people and ancient humans. In adults today, it typically ranges from 120 to 140 degrees. Some have angles less than 120 degrees (coxa varus), while others exceed 140 degrees (coxa valgus).[1]

Nutrient Foramen

The nutrient foramen on the femur shaft is the primary entry point for the nutrient artery into the marrow cavity. Knowledge of its precise location is crucial in surgery and fracture assessment to ensure fractures do not intersect these vital openings.[1]

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Femur Anatomy

Gluteal Tuberosity, Adductor Tubercle, Femoral Shaft Angles, Nutrient Foramen, Medullary Cavity

Start the Quiz on the Gluteal Tuberosity, Adductor Tubercle, Femoral Shaft Angles, Nutrient Foramen, Medullary Cavity.

1 / 10

1. The angle of femoral torsion (anteversion) is measured between the long axis of the femoral neck and which reference axis?

1. The transcondylar axis (axis through both femoral condyles)

2. The acetabular axis

3. The tibial long axis

4. The long axis of the femoral shaft

2 / 10

2. The nutrient foramen can be absent in approximately what percentage of femora?

1. It is absent in all elderly individuals

2. 10–15% have no distinct single nutrient foramen — multiple small foramina may be present instead

3. 0% — always present

4. 50%

3 / 10

3. The medullary cavity is used for intraosseous (IO) access in emergencies. In the femur, IO access in adults is typically placed at:

1. The adductor tubercle

2. The femoral neck

3. The distal femur (proximal to the condyles) or the proximal tibia (preferred site)

4. The femoral head

4 / 10

4. The normal femoral medullary canal shows on CT scan a Hounsfield unit (HU) density of approximately:

1. 300–400 HU (soft tissue density)

2. 0 HU (water density)

3. −100 to −200 HU (fat density, reflecting yellow marrow)

4. +400–600 HU (same as cortical bone)

5 / 10

5. Normal femoral anteversion in newborns is approximately:

1. 5° of retroversion

2. 5–10°

3. 30–40°

4. 15–20°

6 / 10

6. Reaming the femoral medullary canal for IM nailing causes which potential complication?

1. Patellar tendon damage

2. Fat embolism from marrow contents entering the venous circulation

3. Sciatic nerve injury exclusively

4. Damage to the greater trochanter

7 / 10

7. The cortical thickness of the femoral shaft is greatest at the:

1. Femoral neck region

2. Distal metaphysis

3. Proximal metaphysis

4. Mid-diaphysis (isthmus — the narrowest internal diameter but thickest cortex)

8 / 10

8. The diameter of the medullary canal at the isthmus (narrowest point) of the femur determines which aspect of intramedullary nailing?

1. The locking screw configuration

2. The minimum nail diameter that can be inserted without reaming — or whether reaming is required

3. The length of the nail required

4. The entry point for the nail

9 / 10

9. The gluteal tuberosity is sometimes enlarged into a bony ridge called the 'third trochanter.' It is present in approximately what percentage of individuals?

1. 25–30%

2. <1%

3. 5–10%

4. 50–60%

10 / 10

10. The gluteal tuberosity is located on which surface of the femur and serves as attachment for which muscle?

1. Posterior surface lateral to linea aspera — gluteus maximus attachment

2. Posteromedial surface — medial hamstring attachment

3. Lateral surface — tensor fascia lata attachment

4. Anterior surface — quadriceps attachment

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FAQ’s-

References-

1. National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2023). Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Femur. StatPearls Publishing.
   PMID: 30422577. Last reviewed: November 17, 2023.
   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532982/
2. National Center for Biotechnology Information. (2023). Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Fovea Capitis Femoris. StatPearls Publishing.
   PMID: 30335248. Last reviewed: August 8, 2023.
   https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK519005/
3. Trotter, M., & Gleser, G. C. (1992). Femur/stature ratio and estimates of stature in children. American Journal of Physical Anthropology.
   PMID: 1580352.
   https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1580352/
4. Li, X., et al. (2025). Functional morphology of trabecular system in human proximal femur: A perspective from P45 sectional plastination and 3D reconstruction finite element analysis. Bone Research.
   PMCID: PMC11993998. Published: April 12, 2025.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11993998/
5. Zhang, Q., et al. (2022). The biomechanical behavior of 3D printed human femoral bones under compressive loads. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 40(12), 2845–2856.
   PMCID: PMC9685985 — PMID: 36373714.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9685985/
6. O’Brien, F. J. (2018). Bone mechanical properties in healthy and diseased states. National Library of Medicine (PMC).
   PMCID: PMC6053074.
   https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6053074/

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Official websites of the United States government

• What is Femur Shaft Fracture (Broken Thighbone) & their Types?
• How to do Femur fracture repair?
• All you need to know about Femur X-Ray.

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